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Ọrụ ugbo biodynamic

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Ọrụ ugbo biodynamic

Biodynamic agriculture is a form of alternative agriculture based on pseudo-scientific and esoteric concepts initially developed in 1924 by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). It was the first of the organic farming movements. It treats soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks, emphasizing spiritual and mystical perspectives..[1][2][3]

Biodynamics has much in common with other organic approaches – it emphasizes the use of manures and composts and excludes the use of synthetic (artificial) fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides on soil and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include its treatment of animals, crops, and soil as a single system, an emphasis from its beginnings on local production and distribution systems, its use of traditional and development of new local breeds and varieties. Some methods use an astrological sowing and planting calendar. Biodynamic agriculture uses various herbal and mineral additives for compost additives and field sprays; these are prepared using methods that are more akin to sympathetic magic than agronomy, such as burying ground quartz stuffed into the horn of a cow, which are said to harvest "cosmic forces in the soil".

Enweghị ọdịiche dị na nsonaazụ bara uru site na sayensị n'etiti usoro ọrụ ugbo biodynamic a kwadoro na usoro ọrụ ugpo yiri nke ahụ. Ọrụ ugbo biodynamic bụ pseudoscience n'ihi na ọ nweghị Ihe akaebe sayensị maka ịdị irè ya n'ihi ịdabere na ihe ọmụma na nkwenkwe ihe omimi.[4]

Ka ọ na-erule afọ 2022, a na-eji usoro biodynamic eme ihe na hekta 255.051 na mba 65, nke Germany, Ịtali na France duziri. Germany nwere 42% nke ngụkọta ụwa.[5] Ihe fọdụrụnụ bụ nkezi 1,750 hectare kwa mba. Ọtụtụ ubi vaịn ama ama ejirila usoro biodynamic nke ịzụlite mkpụrụ vaịn.[6] E nwere ụlọ ọrụ asambodo maka ngwaahịa biodynamic, ọtụtụ n'ime ha bụ ndị otu mba ụwa biodynamics standards Demeter International.

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Mmalite nke echiche

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Rudolf Steiner, onye ọkà ihe ọmụma anwansi na onye guzobere "ọrụ ugbo anthropophic", nke e mechara mara dị ka "biodynamic".

Biodynamics bụ ọrụ ugbo nke oge a nke mbụ. [7] [8][9] Mmepe ya malitere na 1924 site na usoro nkuzi asatọ gbasara ọrụ ugbo nke onye ọkà ihe ọmụma Rudolf Steiner nyere na Kobierzyce" id="mwRg" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Kobierzyce">Schloss Koberwitz na Silesia, Germany (nke bụzi Kobierzyce na Poland). [10][11] Okwu ndị a, ihe ngosi mbụ a maara nke ọrụ ugbo, [7] bụ ndị e mere iji meghachi omume na arịrịọ nke ndị ọrụ ugbo chọpụtara na ọnọdụ ala mebiri emebi na mmebi nke ahụike na ogo nke ihe ọkụkụ na anụ ụlọ sitere na iji fatịlaịza kemịkal. Ndị bịaranụ 111, ihe na-erughị ọkara n'ime ha bụ ndị ọrụ ugbo, si mba isii, ọkachasị Germany na Poland.[7] E bipụtara okwu ndị ahụ na Nọvemba 1924; nsụgharị Bekee mbụ pụtara na 1928 dị ka The Agriculture Course . [12]

Steiner kwusiri ike na usoro ndị ọ tụrụ aro kwesịrị ịnwale ya na nnwale. Maka ebumnuche a, Steiner guzobere otu nyocha, "Agricultural Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners of the General Anthroposophycal Society".[13] N'agbata afọ 1924 na 1939, otu nyocha a dọtara ihe dị ka ndị otu 800 si gburugburu ụwa, gụnyere Europe, Amerịka na Australasia.[13] E guzobere otu ọzọ, "Association for Research in Anthroposophical Agriculture" (Versuchsring anthroposophischer Landwirte), nke onye Germany na-ahụ maka ọrụ ugbo Erhard Bartsch duziri, iji nwalee mmetụta nke usoro biodynamic na ndụ na ahụike nke ala, osisi na anụmanụ; otu ahụ bipụtara akwụkwọ akụkọ kwa ọnwa, Demeter.[14] Bartsch nyekwara aka n'ịmepụta nzukọ ahịa maka ngwaahịa biodynamic, Demeter, nke ka dị taa. A gbanwere aha Research Association ka ọ bụrụ Imperial Association for Biodynamic Agriculture (Reichsverband für biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise) n'afọ 1933. Ọ bụ ọchịchị National Socialist gbasasịrị ya na 1941. N'afọ 1931, njikọ ahụ nwere ndị otu 250 na Germany, 109 na Switzerland, 104 na mba ndị ọzọ dị na Europe na 24 na-abụghị Europe. Ugbo biodynamic kachasị ochie bụ Wurzerhof na Austria na Marienhöhe na Germany.[15]

N'afọ 1938, e bipụtara ihe odide Ehrenfried Pfeiffer, Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening, n'asụsụ ise - Bekee, Dutch, Italian, French, na German; nke a ghọrọ ọrụ a na-ahụkarị n'ọhịa ruo ọtụtụ iri afọ.[14] Na July 1939, na oku nke Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne, Pfeiffer gara UK wee gosipụta Betteshanger Summer School na Conference on Biodynamic Farming na ugbo Northbourne na Kent. [16] A kọwawo nzukọ ahụ dị ka 'njikọ na-efu efu' n'etiti ọrụ ugbo biodynamic na ọrụ ugbo organic n'ihi na, n'afọ Betteshanger gasịrị, Northbourne bipụtara nkwupụta ya banyere ọrụ ugbo nke organic, Look to the Land, ebe o chepụtara okwu ahụ bụ 'ọrụ ugbo organic' ma too usoro Rudolf Steiner. [16] N'afọ 1950, ọrụ Steiner gbara Hans Mueller ume ịmepụta usoro ọrụ ugbo organic-biological na Switzerland; nke a mechara ghọọ onye kacha enye asambodo nke ngwaahịa organic na Europe, Bioland . [1]: 5 

Ọganihu ala

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Taa, a na-eme biodynamics n'ihe karịrị mba 50 n'ụwa niile nakwa n'ọnọdụ dịgasị iche iche, site na ọrụ ugbo, viticulture na France, mmepụta owu na Egypt, na ịzụlite silkworm na China.[17]:: 141  Demeter International bụ ụlọ ọrụ asambodo bụ isi maka ugbo na ogige na-eji usoro ndị a. Na 2020 Demeter International na International Biodynamic Association sonyeere ịghọ Biodynamic Federation - Demeter International.

  • Na United States, ọrụ ugbo biodynamic malitere na 1926.[18] Site na 1926 ruo 1938, ndị ọrụ ugbo 39 na ndị na-elekọta ubi na US gbasoro omume biodynamic.[18] E hiwere Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Association na 1938 dị ka ụlọ ọrụ steeti New York.
  • Na Great Britain, ọrụ ugbo biodynamic malitere na 1927. [19] N'afọ 1928, e hiwere Anthroposophical Agricultural Foundation na England; a na-akpọ nke a ugbu a Biodynamic Agriculture Association.[14] N'afọ 1939, e mere nzukọ mbụ nke ọrụ ugbo biodynamic na Britain, Betteshanger Summer School na Conference on Biodynamic Agriculture, na ugbo Lord Kent" id="mwiw" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Northbourne, Kent">Northbourne na Kent; Ehrenfried Pfeiffer bụ onye isi ngosi.[16]
  • N'Australia, onye ọrụ ugbo mbụ bụ Ernesto Genoni onye sonyeere Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners na 1928, nwanne ya nwoke Emilio Genoni sochiri ya. [20][21] Ugbo mbụ nke Ernesto Genoni bụ na Dalmore, na Gippsland, Victoria, na 1933.[22] N'afọ sochirinụ, Ileen Macpherson na Ernesto Genoni guzobere Demeter Biological Farm na Dandenong, Victoria, na 1934 ma na-azụ ya site na iji ụkpụrụ biodynamic ruo ihe karịrị afọ iri abụọ.[23] Bob Williams kwuru okwu ihu ọha mbụ na Australia banyere ọrụ ugbo biodynamic na 26 June 1938 n'ụlọ ndị na-ese ụkpụrụ ụlọ Walter Burley Griffin na Marion Mahony Griffin na Castlecrag, Sydney. [24] Kemgbe afọ 1950 ọrụ nyocha gara n'ihu na Biodynamic Research Institute (BDRI) na Powelltown, nso Melbourne n'okpuru nduzi nke Alex Podolinsky.[25][26] N'afọ 1989, e guzobere Biodynamic Agriculture Australia, dị ka njikọ na-abụghị maka uru.
  • Na France, e guzobere International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) na 1972 na ndị otu ise, otu n'ime ha bụ Swedish Biodynamic Association.
  • Mahadum nke Kassel nwere Ngalaba Ọrụ Ugbo Biodynamic site na 2006 ruo Machị 2011.
  • E hiwere Emerson College (UK) na 1962 ma nye ya aha Ralph Waldo Emerson, onye America na-ede uri na transcendentalist. Kemgbe ahụ, ọ na-enwe ọmụmụ ihe sitere na nkà ihe ọmụma na nkuzi nke Rudolf Steiner, gụnyere ọrụ ugbo biodynamic.
  • Na Canada, e nwere òtù atọ biodynamic ugbu a, The Society for Biodynamic Farming and Gardening na Ontario, The Biodynamic Agricultural Society of British Columbia na Association de Biodynamie du Québec bụ ndị otu Demeter Canada.

Usoro ọrụ ugbo Biodynamic

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Dị ka ụdị ọrụ ugbo ndị ọzọ, ọrụ ugbo biodynamic na-eji usoro nchịkwa nke e bu n'uche "iweghachi, idebe ma bulie nkwekọrịta gburugburu ebe obibi".[27] Ihe ndị dị n'etiti gụnyere ụdị ihe ọkụkụ dị iche iche, izere ọgwụgwọ ala kemịkal na ntinye na-abụghị nke ugbo n'ozuzu, mmepụta na nkesa dị iche iche na ịtụle mmetụta nke eluigwe na nke ụwa na ihe ndị dị ndụ.[27] Òtù Demeter na-atụ aro na " (a) opekata mpe pasent iri nke ngụkọta nke ugbo ka ewepụ dị ka ebe nchekwa dị iche iche. Nke ahụ nwere ike ịgụnye ma ọ bụghị naanị n'oké ọhịa, ala mmiri, ụzọ ndị dị n'akụkụ osimiri, na ụmụ ahụhụ a kpachapụrụ anya kụọ. Achọrọ ụdị dị iche iche na ntụgharị ihe ọkụkụ na ịkụ ihe ọkụkụ kwa afọ n'otu ubi ahụ ihe karịrị afọ abụọ n'usoro.[28]

Òtù Demeter na-atụkwa aro na nhazi nke ala "site n'aka onye ọrụ ugbo, dịka ọnọdụ ebe ahụ kpebiri, bụ otu n'ime ụkpụrụ ndị bụ isi nke ọrụ ugbo biodynamic. Ụkpụrụ a na-emesi ike na ụmụ mmadụ nwere ọrụ maka mmepe nke gburugburu ebe obibi na mmekọrịta ha nke na-agafe ebumnuche akụ na ụba na ụkpụrụ nke nkọwa gburugburu ebe obibi. " [17] ọkụkụ, anụmanụ niile na-emepụta mmekọrịta pụrụ iche, nke usoro nlekọta ndụ dị mma na anụmanụ na-anwa ":: 148 -142 "Onye ọrụ ugbo ahụ na-achọ ịkwalite ma kwado ike nke okike nke na-eduga n'ihe ọkụkụ dị mma, ma jụ omume nchịkwa ugbo nke na-emebi gburugburu ebe obibi, ala, osisi, anụmanụ ma ọ bụ ahụike mmadụ....a na-eche ugbo ahụ dị ka ihe dị ndụ, ihe nwere onwe ya na ọdịdị nke ya, "[29]: 148 zuru oke na-akwado onwe ya.[27] "A na-edozi ọrịa na njikwa ụmụ ahụhụ site na ụdị dị iche iche nke osisi, ebe obibi anụ na-eri ibe ya, nri na-edozighị ihe ọkụkụ, na nlebara anya na ntinye ọkụ na ikuku. Nchịkwa ahịhịa na-emesi mgbochi ike, gụnyere oge ịkụ, mulching, na ịchọpụta na izere mgbasa nke ụdị ahịhịhịa. "[28]

Ọrụ ugbo biodynamic dị iche na ọtụtụ ụdị ọrụ ugbo organic na mmụọ, ihe omimi, na usoro ịgụ kpakpando. Ọ na-elekwasị anya n'ụzọ ime mmụọ, yana echiche ya maka imeziwanye ihe a kpọrọ mmadụ, na "ọrụ ugbo okike" na Japan.[1]: 5 Ihe ndị dị mkpa gụnyere iji nsị anụ ụlọ eme ihe iji kwado uto osisi (recycling nke ihe oriri), mmezi na imeziwanye ogo ala, na ahụike na ọdịmma nke ihe ọkụkụ na anụmanụ. A na-eji ihe ọkụkụ kpuchie, nsị na-acha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ na ntụgharị ihe ọkụkụ eme ihe nke ukwuu na ugbo iji kwalite ụdị ịdị iche iche nke ndụ osisi na anụmanụ, yana ịkwalite usoro ndụ na ọrụ ndụ nke ala.[27]

Ugbo Biodynamic na-enwekarị akụkụ ọdịbendị ma na-agba ndị obodo ume, ma site na ịzụlite ahịa mpaghara ma site na ọrụ iwu obodo n'ugbo. Ụfọdụ ugbo biodynamic na-eji ụdị ọrụ ugbo Community Supported Agriculture, nke nwere njikọ na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya.

E jiri ya tụnyere ọrụ ugbo na-abụghị nke anụ ahụ, a chọpụtala na ọrụ ugbo BD na-eguzogide ihe ịma aka gburugburu ebe obibi, iji kwalite ụdị dị iche iche, na iji mee ka ike dịkwuo mma, ihe Eric Lichtfouse na-akọwa na ọ dị mkpa na-arịwanye elu n'ihu Mgbanwe ihu igwe, ụkọ ike na mmụba nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ.[30]

Nkwadebe nke Biodynamic

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N'ime "ọmụmụ ọrụ ugbo" ya, Steiner nyere iwu ọgwụ itoolu dị iche iche iji nyere aka n'ịmụ nwa, ma kọwaa otu esi akwadebe ha. Steiner kwenyere na nkwadebe ndị a na-eme ka ike ndị dị n'ala na nke eluigwe na ala banye.[31] A na-agụpụta ihe ndị a kwadebere 500 ruo 508, ebe a na-eji abụọ mbụ eme ihe maka ịkwadebe ubi, a na-ejikwa asaa ndị ọzọ eme compost. Ule ogologo oge (nlegharị anya DOK) na-enyocha usoro ọrụ ugbo biodynamic ma e jiri ya tụnyere usoro ọrụ ugpo na nke omenala, chọpụtara na ma ọrụ ugbo organic na ọrụ ugbo biomynamic mere ka ala dịkwuo mma, mana o nwere ihe ọkụkụ dị ala karịa ọrụ ugbo.   [citation needed] Banyere mmepe compost karịa ime ka oge mbụ nke composting dị ngwa, a hụla ụfọdụ mmetụta dị mma: [6]

  • Mgbasa ahụ nwere ihe ndị na-akpali uto osisi gụnyere cytokinins.   [citation needed] 
  • Ọganihu ụfọdụ n'ihe oriri na-edozi ahụ nke compost pụtara ìhè site na ihe ndị a gụnyere, mana ọ bụghị n'ihi omume na nkwadebe ziri ezi dị ka Steiner kọwara ha.[32]

Ọ bụ ezie na nkwadebe ahụ nwere uru na-edozi ahụ kpọmkwem, ndị na-ahụ maka biodynamic nke oge a kwenyere na uru ha bụ ịkwado ikike ịchịkwa onwe onye nke biota dị na ala na compost.[33] Ndị na-akatọ omume ahụ ekwuola na ọ nweghị ihe akaebe ma ọ bụ ezi uche na-eme ka omume ahụ n'onwe ha, nke na-adabere n'Echiche anwansi na echiche ndị a gbaghaara agbagha nke Steiner n'onwe ya. Enweghị ihe akaebe na omume biodynamic nwere uru ọ bụla karịa ihe oriri ha na-agbakwunye dị ka fatịlaịza, nke nwere ike ịba uru dị nta karịa fatịlaịtị ndị ọzọ ma ọ bụ fatịlaðar azụmahịa.[32][34]

Nkwadebe n'ọhịa

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Nkwadebe ubi, maka ịkpali mmepụta humus:

  • 500: Ngwakọta humus kwadebere site na itinye nsị ehi na mpi ehi ma lie ya n'ala (40-60 cm n'okpuru elu) n'oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ.  A na-ahapụ ya ka ọ ree n'oge oyi ma weghachite ya maka iji ya mee ihe dị ka fatịlaịza n'oge opupu ihe ubi na-esote.
  • 501: Quartz e gburu egbu nke a na-etinye n'ime mpi ehi ma lie ya n'ala n'oge opupu ihe ubi ma wepụ ya n'oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ. Enwere ike ịgwakọta ya na 500 mana a na-akwadebe ya n'onwe ya. A na-agbanye ngwakọta ahụ n'okpuru nrụgide dị ala n'elu ihe ọkụkụ n'oge mmiri ozuzo, dị ka ihe a na-eche na ọ bụ ihe na-egbochi nje.

Nkwadebe nke compost

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Nkwadebe compost Steiner tụrụ aro iji ahịhịa ndị a na-ejikarị eme ihe na ọgwụgwọ ọzọ. A na-eji ọtụtụ n'ime otu ahịhịa Steiner kpọtụrụ aha na usoro ihe ọkụkụ iji mee fatịlaịza akwụkwọ, nsị akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ, ma ọ bụ na composting. Nkwadebe Steiner tụlere bụ:

  • 502: Flowers Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) nke a na-etinye n'ime akpa nwa site na red deer (Cervus elaphus), na-etinye ya n'anyanwụ n'oge ọkọchị, na-eli ya n'ala n'oge oyi, ma na-enweta ya n'oge opupu ihe ubi.
  • 503: Okooko osisi Shamomile (Matricaria recutita) etinye n'ime obere eriri afọ ehi, lie ya n'ala humus-ọgaranya n'oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ, ma weghachite ya n'oge opupu ihe ubi.
  • 504: Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) osisi na-agbasa n'ụzọ zuru ezu n'okpuru ala gbara gburugburu n'akụkụ niile ruo otu afọ.
  • 505: Akpụkpọ osisi Oak (Quercus robur) a pịrị n'ime obere iberibe, tinye ya n'ime okpokoro isi nke anụ ụlọ, nke peat gbara gburugburu, ma lie ya n'ala n'ebe dị nso na mmiri ozuzo.
  • 506: Flowers Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) etinye n'ime mesentery nke ehi, lie n'ala n'oge oyi, ma weghachite n'oge opupu ihe ubi.
  • 507: A na-ewepụta okooko osisi Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) n'ime mmiri.
  • 508: Horsetail (Equisetum).

Kalenda ịkụ osisi

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Usoro a na-ewere na enwere mmetụta ọnwa na nke ịgụ kpakpando na ala na mmepe osisi - dịka ọmụmaatụ, ịhọrọ ịkụ, ịzụlite ma ọ bụ owuwe ihe ubi dị iche iche dabere na oge ọnwa na kpakpando zodiacal ọnwa na-agafe, yana dabere ma ihe ọkụkụ ahụ bụ mgbọrọgwụ, akwụkwọ, okooko osisi, ma ọ bụ mkpụrụ osisi ahụ. [35] Akụkụ a nke biodynamics a na-akpọ "astrological" na "pseudoscientific" na okike.[36][37]

Mmepụta mkpụrụ

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Ọrụ ugbo biodynamic lekwasịrị anya na mmịpụta mkpụrụ (na ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akụ mkpụrụ nke ha) na mmepe nke ụdị dị iche iche.[38]

asambodo Biodynamic

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Usoro asambodo Demeter biodynamic nke e guzobere na 1924 bụ usoro asambodo na akara mbụ maka mmepụta ihe.[1]: 5 Ka ọ na-erule 2018, iji nweta asambodo dị ka biodynamic, ugbo ahụ ga-emezu ụkpụrụ ndị a: ntuziaka agronomic, njikwa greenhouse, ihe owuwu, ntuziaka anụ ụlọ, na njikwa na nhazi mgbe owuwe ihe ubi gasịrị.[39]

Okwu Biodynamic bụ akara ahịa nke njikọ Demeter nke ndị ọrụ ugbo biodynamic nwere maka ebumnuche nke ịnọgide na-enwe ụkpụrụ mmepụta eji eme ihe ma n'ọrụ ugbo ma n'ịhazi nri. Ebumnuche akara ahịa ahụ bụ ichebe ma ndị na-azụ ahịa ma ndị na'emepụta ihe ndị dị ndụ. Demeter International bụ nzukọ nke mba ndị otu; mba ọ bụla nwere nzukọ Demeter nke ya nke achọrọ iji mezuo ụkpụrụ mmepụta mba ụwa (ma ọ pụkwara ịgafe ha). E guzobere nzukọ Demeter mbụ na 1928; e guzobere U.S. Demeter Association na 1980s ma kwado ugbo mbụ ya na 1982. Na France, Biodyvin na-enye asambodo Mmanya biodynamic. N'Ijipt, SEKEM mepụtara Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), njikọ nke na-enye ndị ọrụ ugbo ọzụzụ ka ha bụrụ ndị nwere asambodo. Ka ọ na-erule afọ 2006, ihe karịrị ụlọ mmanya 200 n'ụwa niile nwere asambodo dị ka biodynamic; ọtụtụ ụlọ mmanya ndị ọzọ na-eji usoro biodynamic eme ihe ruo n'ókè ka ukwuu ma ọ bụ obere.

Ịdị irè

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Nnyocha banyere ọrụ ugbo biodynamic emeela ka ọ dị mgbagwoju anya site na ihe isi ike nke ikewapụ akụkụ biodynamic dị iche iche mgbe ị na-eme nnwale ntụnyere.[8] N'ihi ya, enweghi ihe siri ike nke na-enye ihe akaebe nke mmetụta ọ bụla.[8][40]

Ebe ọ bụ na ọrụ ugbo biodynamic bụ ụdị ọrụ ugbo organic, enwere ike iche na ọ na-ekerịta njirimara ya, gụnyere "ala na-adịchaghị njọ ma si otú a dịgasị iche iche na ndị nwere njikọ chiri anya".[41]

Nnyocha 2009/2011 chọpụtara na ubi ndị a na-akụ n'ụzọ biodynamically: [41]

  • nwere ihe ọkụkụ zuru oke dị ala karịa ugbo nkịtị, mana ha nwetara arụmọrụ dị mma nke mmepụta karịa oke ike eji eme ihe.
  • nwere ọnụ ọgụgụ dị ukwuu nke ikpuru na biomass karịa ugbo nkịtị.

Ihe abụọ ahụ yiri nsonaazụ ya n'ubi ndị a na-akụ n'ụzọ okike.

Nnakwere

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In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Peter Treue, agricultural researcher at the University of Kiel, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued that similar or equal results can be obtained using standard organic farming principles. He wrote that some biodynamic preparations more resemble alchemy or magic akin to geomancy..

Na nyocha nke afọ 1994, Holger Kirchmann, onye na-eme nchọpụta n'ala na Mahadum Sayensị Ọrụ Ugbo nke Sweden, kwubiri na ntụziaka Steiner bụ anwansi na nkwenkwe, ọ pụghịkwa inye aka na mmepe nke ọrụ ugbo ọzọ ma ọ bụ nke na-adịgide adịgide. Dị ka Kirchmann si kwuo, ọtụtụ n'ime nkwupụta Steiner enweghị ike ịnwapụta n'ihi na enweghị ike ịme echiche doro anya na sayensị site na nkọwa ya. Kirchmann kwusiri ike na mgbe a nwalere usoro ọrụ ugbo biodynamic na sayensị, nsonaazụ ya enweghị nkwenye.[42] Ọzọkwa, na nyocha nke afọ 2004 banyere ọrụ ugbo biodynamic, Linda Chalker-Scott, onye nchọpụta na Mahadum Washington State, gosipụtara biodynamics dị ka pseudoscience, na-ede na Steiner ejighị usoro sayensị mee ihe iji chepụta echiche ya nke biodynamics, nakwa na mgbakwunye nke usoro ọrụ ugbo dị mma "mere ka mkparịta ụka" nke echiche mbụ Steiner. Dabere na obere nnwale sayensị nke biodynamics, Chalker-Scott kwubiri na "ọ dịghị ihe akaebe dị" na nkwadebe homeopathic na-eme ka ala dị mma.[43]

Na Michael Shermer's The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, Dan Dugan na-ekwu na a ga-emejuputa nkwadebe biodynamic naanị na ndabere nke Steiner's "nchọpụta nke onwe".[44] Onye na-enwe obi abụọ Brian Dunning dere "ụzọ kachasị mma iji chee echiche banyere 'ọrụ ugbo biodynamic' ga-abụ dịka anwansi a na-etinye n'elu ugbo dum. Biodynamics na-ahụ ugbo dum dị ka otu ihe dị ndụ, na ihe ha na-akpọ ike ndụ".

Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs na Hartmut Spieß, ndị nchọpụta na Goetheanum, agbachitere ụkpụrụ nke biodynamics ma tụọ aro na nkatọ nke ọrụ ugbo biodynamic nke na-agọnahụ ya na ntụkwasị obi sayensị "na-agbaso eziokwu... ebe ọ bụ na ha anaghị adọrọ mmasị na nnukwu mpaghara nke njikwa na nyocha biodynamic". A na-enye ndị ọrụ ugbo biodynamic ọrụ ịzụlite mkparịta ụka na-aga n'ihu n'etiti sayensị biodynamic na sayensị okike sensu stricto, n'agbanyeghị ọdịiche dị mkpa na paradigms, echiche ụwa, na usoro uru.[17]: 147 

Onye ọkà ihe ọmụma nke sayensị Michael Ruse edeela na ndị na-eso ụzọ nke ọrụ ugbo biodynamic na-enwe mmasị na nchedo sayensị nke na-abịa site na ntọala pseudoscientific ya, na-ekpughe ma n'akụkụ ya dị omimi na echiche na ha nọ n'ihu nke mmetụta na-emegide sayensị sara mbara nke toro na-emegiderịta usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ dị ka mgbanwe mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa.[4]

Echiche Steiner yiri nke onye ọkà mmụta sayensị ọrụ ugbo Richard Krzymowski, onye na-akụzi na Breslau kemgbe afọ 1922. [45] Onye sayensị gburugburu ebe obibi Frank M. Rauch kwuru na 1995, banyere mbipụta nke akwụkwọ sitere n'aka Raoul Heinrich Francé, isi iyi ọzọ nwere ike iji Steiner.[46]

Dị ka akwụkwọ sayensị nke Holger Kirchmann si kwuo na 2021, ndị sayensị amaghị auras na ike Steiner kwuru. Enweghị ike ịnwale nkwupụta ya (echiche) nke "ike dị ndụ" na-emetụta ihe ọkụkụ, ya mere ọ gaghị adịkwa ike. Otú ọ dị, mgbe echiche na-enweghị ike ịgbagha, nke a bụ ihe ịrịba ama nke pseudoscience.[47]

Otu ndị na-eme nchọpụta sitere na Botanical Garden na Department of Experimental and Social Sciences Education nke Faculty of Teacher Training nke Mahadum Valencia dọrọ aka ná ntị na 2021 banyere ihe ize ndụ nke pseudoscience na njikọ ya na akụkọ ifo ma ọ bụ nkwenkwe banyere mmetụta nke ọnwa na ọrụ ugbo. E bipụtara nchọpụta nke nyocha sayensị a nke ihe karịrị 100 akwụkwọ (gụnyere isiokwu sayensị, akwụkwọ na akwụkwọ ọgụgụ agụmakwụkwọ dị elu) na akwụkwọ akụkọ Agronomy . [48] Ha chọpụtara na ọ nweghị ihe akaebe a pụrụ ịdabere na ya, nke dabeere na sayensị maka mmekọrịta ọ bụla dị n'etiti usoro ọnwa na physiology nke osisi na akwụkwọ nkuzi ọ bụla metụtara sayensị osisi ma ọ bụ akwụkwọ akụkọ ndị ọgbọ nyochara na-akwado omume ugbo nke ọnwa. Ihe akaebe sitere na ngalaba nke physics anaghị akwado mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ike ọnwa na mmeghachi omume osisi. Ya mere, omume ugbo a ma ama nke jikọtara ya na oge ọnwa enweghị nkwado sayensị.[49]

Hụkwa

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  • Agroecology
  • Alan Chadwick
  • Ọrụ ugbo na-agbanye ọbara
  • Permaculture
  • The Real Dirt on Farmer John - ihe ngosi banyere ugbo nkịtị nke gbanwere na Ọrụ ugbo na-akwado obodo
  • Ịkpa anụ ọhịa

Ebem si dee

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Paul Kristiansen and Charles Mansfield, "Overview of organic agriculture", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), Organic Agriculture: A global perspective, Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing
  2. ↑ Ikerd (2010). "Sustainability, Rural", in Leslie A. Duram: Encyclopedia of Organic, Sustainable, and Local Food. ABC-CLIO, 347–49. ISBN 978-0313359637. 
  3. ↑ Abbott (2007). Soil Biological Fertility: A Key to Sustainable Land Use in Agriculture. Springer. ISBN 978-1402066184. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Ruse M (2013). Chapter 12: Evolution – From Pseudoscience to Popular Science, from Popular Science to Professional Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-05182-6.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "demarc" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ Demeter Monitor 2022/2023 (page 6) (nl). Retrieved on 16 May 2024.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Reeve (December 1, 2005). "Soil and Winegrape Quality in Biodynamically and Organically Managed Vineyards". American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 56 (4): 367–76. DOI:10.5344/ajev.2005.56.4.367. ISSN 0002-9254.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Reeve 2005" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Paull (2011). "Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924". European Journal of Social Sciences 21 (1): 64–70. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Vogt G (2007). in Lockeretz W: Chapter 1: The Origins of Organic Farming. CABI Publishing, 9–30. ISBN 9780851998336.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "vogt" defined multiple times with different content
  9. ↑ Traditional agriculture employed organic practices in the absence of any alternative.
  10. ↑ Paull, John (2013) "Koberwitz (Kobierzyce); In the footsteps of Rudolf Steiner'", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 109 (Autumn), pp. 7–11.
  11. ↑ Paull, John (2013) "Breslau (Wrocław): In the footsteps of Rudolf Steiner", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 110: 10–15.
  12. ↑ Paull (2011). "The secrets of Koberwitz: the diffusion of Rudolf Steiner's agriculture course and the founding of biodynamic agriculture". Journal of Social Research & Policy 2 (1): 19–29. Retrieved on 2011-10-21. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Paull, John (2013) A history of the organic agriculture movement in Australia. In: Bruno Mascitelli, and Antonio Lobo (Eds.) Organics in the Global Food Chain. Connor Court Publishing, Ballarat, ch.3, pp. 37–61.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Paull, John (2011). "Biodynamic Agriculture: The Journey from Koberwitz to the World, 1924–1938". Journal of Organic Systems 6 (1): 27–41.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Paull 2011" defined multiple times with different content
  15. ↑ Herbert Koepf and Bodo von Plato "Die biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise im 20.Jahrhundert", Dornach, 2001
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Paull, John (2011) "The Betteshanger Summer School: Missing link between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming", Journal of Organic Systems, 6(2):13–26.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, "Biodynamic agriculture today", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), Organic Agriculture: A global perspective, Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Paull, John (2019) The Pioneers of Biodynamics in USA: The Early Milestones of Organic Agriculture in the United States, American Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development, 6(2):89–94.
  19. ↑ Paull, John (2019) The Pioneers of Biodynamics in Great Britain: From Anthroposophic Farming to Organic Agriculture (1924–1940), Journal of Environment Protection and Sustainable Development, 5(4): 138–145.
  20. ↑ Paull, John (2015) "Ernesto Genoni: Artist, Pacifist, Anthroposophist", Uriel Lecture, Christian Community, Hawthorn, pp. 1–67.
  21. ↑ Paull, John (2014) "Ernesto Genoni: Australia's pioneer of biodynamic agriculture", Journal of Organics, 1(1):57–81.
  22. ↑ Paull, John (2019) Dalmore Farm: Victoria's first biodynamic farming venture (1933–1934), Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 131: 26–31.
  23. ↑ Paull, John (2017) Ileen Macpherson: Life and tragedy of a pioneer of biodynamic farming at Demeter Farm and a benefactor of Anthroposophy in Australia, Journal of Organics, 4(1):29–56.
  24. ↑ Paull, John (2012) "Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin, Architects of Anthroposophy", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 106: 20–30.
  25. ↑ Demeter Bio-Dynamic. www.demeter.org.au.
  26. ↑ "A Brief History of Bio-dynamics – an Australian Perspective" Biodynamic Growing No 1 Dec 2003. Archived from the original on February 17, 2011.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Lotter (2003). "Organic Agriculture". Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 21 (4): 59–128. DOI:10.1300/J064v21n04_06. ISSN 1044-0046.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Lotter" defined multiple times with different content
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Demeter, USA, Farm Standard
  29. ↑ Alsos, G. A., Carter, S., and Ljunggren, E. (2011), The Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship in Agriculture and Rural Development Cheltenham, GB:Edward Elgar Publishing
  30. ↑ K. Padmavathy (2011). in Lichtfouse: Genetics, biofuels and local farming system. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-1520-2. 
  31. ↑ Kirchmann (2008). "Fundamentals of Organic Agriculture – Past and Present", in Kirchmann: Organic Crop Production – Ambitions and Limitations. Springer, Dordrecht, 13–37. DOI:10.1007/978-1-4020-9316-6_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9315-9. Retrieved on 2009-07-01. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Chhabra. "Biodynamic farming is on the rise – but how effective is this alternative agricultural practice?", The Guardian, 5 March 2017. Retrieved on 5 December 2018. Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Guardian Chhabra" defined multiple times with different content
  33. ↑ Raupp, J. and U.J. König. (1996). "Biodynamic preparations cause opposite yield effects depending upon yield levels". Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 13, pp. 175–88.
  34. ↑ Chalker-Scott (December 2013). "The Science Behind Biodynamic Preparations: A Literature Review". HortTechnology 23 (6): 814–819. DOI:10.21273/HORTTECH.23.6.814. Retrieved on 5 December 2018. 
  35. ↑ Desai (2007). Sustainable agriculture: a vision for the future. New Delhi: B T Pujari/New India Pub. Agency, 228–29. ISBN 978-81-89422-63-9. 
  36. ↑ Novella (19 June 2017). Biodynamic Farming and Other Nonsense. NeuroLogica Blog. The New England Skeptical Society. Retrieved on 5 December 2018.
  37. ↑ Stableford (1 July 2015). Science fact and science fiction : an encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1138868823. Retrieved on 5 December 2018. 
  38. ↑ Nemoto (2007). "Seed supply system for alternative agriculture: Case study of biodynamic agriculture in Germany". Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture 43 (1–2): 73–81. 
  39. ↑ Magali Delmas, Vered Doctori-Blass, Kara Shuster, "Ceago Vinegarden: How green is your wine?: Environmental differentiation strategy through Eco-labels". Case Study, Donald Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, p.9
  40. ↑ Nene (15 July 2017). "A Critical Discussion on the Methods Currently Recommended to Support Organic Crop Farming in India". Asian Agri-History 21 (4): 265–283. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Turinek (2009). "Biodynamic agriculture research progress and priorities". Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 24 (2): 146–54. DOI:10.1017/S174217050900252X.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "BARPP" defined multiple times with different content
  42. ↑ Kirchmann (1994). "Biological dynamic farming – an occult form of alternative agriculture?". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 7 (2): 173–87. DOI:10.1007/BF02349036. 
  43. ↑ Chalker-Scott (2004). "The Myth of Biodynamic Agriculture". Master Gardener Magazine. 
  44. ↑ Dugan D (2002). in Shermer M: Anthroposophy and Anthroposophical Medicine. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-653-8. 
  45. ↑ Helmut Zander (2011). Rudolf Steiner. Die Biographie.. Piper, Munich. ISBN 978-3-492-05448-5. 
  46. ↑ Frank M. Rauch (1995). Lebendige Erde. Zur Neuauflage: Francé Das Leben im Boden und Das Edaphon, Report about the new edition. Edition Siebeneicher.
  47. ↑ Kirchmann (2021). "Revisiting the original reasons for excluding inorganic fertilizers in organic farming—Why the ban is not consistent with our current scientific understanding". Outlook on Agriculture 50 (2): 107–115. DOI:10.1177/00307270211020025. 
  48. ↑ New study contradicts pseudoscientific beliefs about the influence of the moon on agriculture (19 February 2021).
  49. ↑ Mayoral (2020). "What Has Been Thought and Taught on the Lunar Influence on Plants in Agriculture? Perspective from Physics and Biology". Agronomy 10 (7): 955. DOI:10.3390/agronomy10070955. 

 

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